A Critical Look at the Legal Framework Governing Mining Activities and Environmental Protection in Cameroon: What Prospects for Effective Implementation?
Keywords:
Mining-Environment- Protection-Legal Framework-Implementation-CameroonAbstract
In Cameroon in particular and the world at large, the exploration, exploitation and the processing of mineral resources by both private individuals and multinational companies has brought about severe and adverse impacts on the environment and the local population within and around the mining areas. This adverse impact ranges from environment degradation, pollution, diseases with dreadful consequence on livelihood and environmental sustainability. To prevent this deplorable situation, a plethora of International and Regional Conventions has been ratified by Cameroon and national legislations has been enacted with well established institutions aimed at regulating the mining activities thereby, protecting the environment and the local communities. Despite the existence of these laws, the rate of environmental degradation and untold sufferings amongst the local population as a result of mineral resources extraction is overwhelming. This state of affair continues to place doubts on the effectiveness of these legal instruments, meant to be the solution. This article therefore, seeks to examine the effectiveness of the existing legal instruments in regulating mining activities. The article also highlighted the impacts of mining activities on the environment and the hurdles in the implementation of mining regulations in protecting the environment and local population in Cameroon. In order to attain our objective, doctrinal methodology has been adopted. The conclusion of this article sums up the discussion with a note on the potential future trajectory in filling the identified lacunae of the laws in regulating mining activities and environmental protection in Cameroon.
References
1. Anselme Kamga et al , Sustainable development and environmental challenges in Cameroon’s mining sector: A review, Journal of Minin g & Environment, Vol.9, No.2, 2018, p.29.
2. See Murtala M.G., An appraisal of laws on the protection of environment in Nigeria available at https://work.bepress.com/ murtala-ganiyu/1, (2015). See also Ehusani J.A. & Etudaiye E.M., A critical analysis of the existing legal regime for environmental protection, paper presented at national workshop on climate University of Ilorin, (2010), p.28.
3. Anselme Kamga et al. op cit, p.298.
4. Rodrick Ndi, et al., Double Sale of One and The Same Piece of Land in Cameroon: The Legal Implications . 2019; 2(1): 1–12p. See also Egbe Samuel Egbe; “ The Concept of Community Forestry under Cameroonian Law’’, The African Society of International and Comparative Law, African Journal of International and Comparative Law, Vol. (2000), 12 Pt. 2.
5. Uwem E.U, Environmental Degradation in the Niger Delta: A Critique of Existing Law for Curbing Degradation, in Nigerian Environmental Law Review vol. l, C.A Omaka (ed), 2007, Kingdom Age Publications 2007, at 67. See generally Ignation Prieto & Raul Noceda, Legal protection of the environment in developing countries, being the colloquium of the International Association of legal Science, (1974), p.27.
6. National Environmental Standards Regulation Enforc ement Agency (Establishment Act) 2007. Section 37. See also OMOTOLA, J.A., Environmental law in Nigeria, the Caxton press (West Africa) limited Ibadan, (1990), p.1. NJEL (2020 ) 14–39 © Law Journals 2020. All Rights Reserved Page 36
7. See article 4 (k) of Law No 96/12 of 5th August 1996 relating to Environmental Management i n Cameroon. See also Muam Chi A., Cameroon environmental law within the framework of sustainable development ARIKA, Yaoundé, Cameroon ISBN, (2017), P.34.
8. Olugbenga O.S, Appraissing the sources of Environmental Law in Nigeria, in Nigerian Environmental Law Review, C.O Omaka (e) Kingdom Age publication 2007 at 92.
9. Anselme Kamga et al , Sustainable development and environmental challenges in Cameroon’s mining sector: A review, Journal o f Mining & Environment, Vol.9, No.2, 2018, p.294.
10. Bryan, Garner A. (2009), Black’s law Dictionary, 19th edition, West Publishing CO. Dallas Texas USA.
11. A mine includes any undertaking, whether public or private, for the extraction of any substance from unde r the surface of the earth.
12. See Law n o 2016/017 of 14 th December 2016, instituting the new 2016 mining code of Cameroon and Bayan .A Garner, black’s law dictionary eighth edition, at p.116.
13. See section 4 of the new mining code of 2016.
14. See the preamble of the Cameroon constitution of 18 January 1996. See also See equally Tamasang Funwie C., Sustainable Development: some reflections with regard to the new constitutional dispensation in Cameroon, Revue Africaine Des Sciences Juridiques vol. 5, No 1, p.148.
15. Anselme Kamga et al, op cit, p.297.
16. Tetsopgang, S., Nzolang, C. and Kuepouo, G. (2007). Environmental and Socio - Economic Assessment of an Artisanal Gold Mine Field: Case of Bétaré -Oya, East-Cameroon; Internal Report, Centre de Recherche et d’Éducatio n pour le Développement (CREPD), Yaoundé, Cameroon.
17. It is of interest to note here that in Cameroon, this former law No. 2010 modifies and supplements certain provisions of 2001 law. As far as this law is concern, the old provisions article 2,8,11,16,20,23,32,37,38,39,40,44,49,50,9 0,97 and finally article 98 of law No 2001/1 of 16 April 2001 establishing the mining code was modified and supplemented in 2014 and now 2016.
18. CAPAM. (2013). Secteur minier Camerounais: Histoire de l’activité minière et géologique au Cameroun. www.capam.com.
19. See Section 2 law N o 2016/017 of 14 December 2016 instituting the mining code of 2016 in Cameroon.
20. Ibid, section 3 (1) & (2).
21. Ibid, section 135 (1).
22. Anselme Kamga et al, op cit, p.299.
23. Funoh, K.N. (2014). The impacts of artisanal gold mining on local livelihoods and the environment in the forested areas of Cameroon. CIFOR. Vol. 150.
24. See section 135 (2) of the 2016 mining code op cit.
25. See article 118 of decree N0 2002/648/PM of 26th March 2002 to lay down the conditions for the implementation of Law N0 2001/1 of 16th April 2001 to establish the former mining Code of 2001 in Cameroon.
26. Ibid, article 119.
27. Ibid, article 120 (1).
28. Ibid, article 124(1).
29. Ibid, article 125
30. See the case of GR Extracao de Areia and Transportes Rodoviarios ltda v. Ministerio publico. Tribunal of justice, state of Parana, Brazil, 1st march 1994.
31. See section 137 of the new 2016 mining code.
32. Ibid, article 121 of decree No 2002/648/PM of 26 March 2002 fixing the modalities and applications of the law No.001 of 16 April 2001 establishing the amended 2001 mining code.
33. Ibid, article 122.
34. See to this effect article 133 to 134 of the 2016 mining code.
35. Law No 67/LF/24 of 12/11/1965, law No 67/LF/1 of 12/06/1967 and law No 2016/007 of 12 July 2016, governing the penal code of Cameroon. NJEL (2020 ) 14–39 © Law Journals 2020. All Rights Reserved Page 37
36. Section 261 of the penal code.
37. Ibid, section 258.
38. Ibid, section 239.
39. Ibid, section 268.
40. Ibid, section 227 (1) (a) – (c) and (2)
41. Ibid, section 228.
42. Ibid, section 229 (1).
43. Ibid, section 230 (1) and (2).
44. Ibid, section 230 (1) and (2).
45. Article 2 of arête no 0070/MINEP.
46. Hereinafter refers to as the ESIA Decree.
47. Thereinafter refers to as ESA Decree.
48. See article 2 of the above ESIA Decree.
49. Ibid, article 3 of the ESIA Decree.
50. Ibid, article 26 of the ESIA decree.
51. See article 2 of Decree n°201 3/0065/PM of 13 January 2013 setting ESIA preparation and processing modalities
52. See section 1 of Law n° 2012/006 of 19 April 2012 to institute the gas code and decree No 2014/3438/PM of October 27, 2014 setting the terms of application of law No 2012/006 o f April 19, 2012 instituting the gas code of Cameroon.
53. Ibid, 6 and 30.
54. See article 1 of Law N o 2019/008 of 25th April 2019 to institute the petroleum code.
55. Ibid, article 3(1) (2).
56. Ibid, article 80 (1)-(3).
57. Ibid, article 80 (2).
58. Ibid, article 80(3).
59. Ibid, article 83.
60. Decree no 2000/465 of 30 June 2000.
61. Ibid, article 68, 69 and 70.
62. Ibid, article 85.
63. Ibid, article 91.
64. Ibid, article 92 (1)-(3).
65. See Section 2, of law N o 94/01 of 20th January 1994, to lay down forestry, wildlife and fisheries regulations.
66. Ibid, section 3.
67. Ibid, section 4 and 5.
68. Ibid, section 16(2).
69. Ibid, section 40 new (3).
70. See article 151 of Decree No. 95 -466/PM of 20 July 1995 to lay down the conditions for the implementation of wildlife regulations
71. Section 5, 7, 9 and 12 of law n o 98/015 of 14 July 1998 relating to establishments classified as dangerous, unhealthy or obnoxious.
72. Ibid, section 2.
73. Ibid, section 25 and 26.
74. See the Implementation Decree No.99/818/PM of 9 November 1995.
75. Section 4, of the 1998 law governing water resources in Cameroon.
76. Ibid, section 6.
77. Law No 96/12 of 5th August 1996 Relating to Environmental Management, chapter 3, article 9 (a-f).
78. Ibid, article 4(0).
79. Ibid, part 2 Chapter 2 of article 17(1).
80. Ibid, article 17(2).
81. Ibid, article 17(3).
82. Ibid, article 17(4).
83. Ibid, article 18.
84. Ibid, article 20(2).
85. See article 1 of Law N° 2013/004 of 18 April 2013 to lay down private investment incentives in the Republic of Cameroon.
86. Section 2, of the 2002 Investment Charter.
87. Ibid, section 7.
88. See law No 2003/006 of 21st April 2003 t0 lay down regulations governing modern biotechnology in Cameroon.
89. See Cartagena protocol on Bio safety, Biodiversity Secretariat, available at http://www.biodv.org.
90. Section 57 of the 2003 Bio safety law in Cameroon.
91. See Decree No. 2005/260 of 15 July 2005 creating MINIMIDT.
92. See environmental and social impact assessment report prepared for SG sustainable oils Cameroon February 2011 HARAKLES farms, p.38.
93. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), 1987, Our Common Future New York: Oxford University Press.
94. Ghorbani, Y. and Kuan, S.H. (2017). A review of sustainable development in the Chilean mining sector: past, present and future. Internationa l Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment. 31 (2): 137-165.
95. Moki Suh, Advanced Economic Geography, Ndop, 2006, pp.1-130.
96. Ibid. NJEL (2020 ) 14–39 © Law Journals 2020. All Rights Reserved Page 38
97. See article 10 of the C& K Mining convention op cit.
98. WWF. (2008). Mining Concessions Over Forests and National Parks in So utheast Cameroon. GIS Unit Jengi August 2008. See also Nodem, V., Bamenjo, J.N. and Schwartz, B. (2012). Sub national natural resource revenue management in Cameroon: Forest and mining Royalities in Yokadouma, east Cameroun. Network for the Fight against Hunger, Yaoundé.
99. Funoh, K.N. (2014). The impacts of artisanal gold mining on local livelihoods and the environment in the forested areas of Cameroon. CIFOR. Vol. 150. See equally Hoadley, M. and Limpitlaw, D. (2004). The artisanal and small scale mining sector and sustainable livelihoods. In Mintek Small Scale Mining Conference, Book of Proceedings. (Vol. 9, pp. 1-9).
100. Makweba, M.M. and Ndonde, P.B. (1996). The mineral sector and the national environmental policy. In Proceedings of the workshop on the national environmental policy for Tanzania (Dares Salaam, Tanzania). pp. 73-164.
101. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (1997). Industry and environment, mining and sustainable development.
102. Moody, R. and Panos, S.P. (1997). Environmental assessment of minin g projects.
103. Noronha, L. (2001). Designing tools to track health and well being in mining regions of India. Natural Resource Forum. 25: 53-65.
104. Anselme Kamga et al. sustainable development and environmental challenges in Cameroon’s mining sector: a review, journal of mining & environment, vol.9, No.2, 2018, pp.303-304.
105. See Chepkemoi, Joyce. "What Is The Environmental Impact Of The Mining Industry?" World Atlas, 2017, worldatlas. com/articles/what-is-the-environmental- impact-of-the-mining-industry.html. viewed on the 15 of September 2019.
106. Tetsopgang, S., et al., (2007). Environmental and Socio -economic assessment of an Artisanal Gold Mine field: case of Bétaré -Oya, East - Cameroon. Yaoundé: Centre de Recherche et d’Éducation pour le Développement (CREPD).
107. Chimete, P. (2014, March 24). Cinq Entreprises Clandestines Démasquées à Bétaré-Oya. Retrieved from Africatime - Website: http://fr.africatime.com/cameroun/articles /cinq-entreprises-clandestines- demasquees-betare-oya.
108. Mafany, G.T., Fantong, W.Y. and Nkeng, G.E. (2006). Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution. Groundwater pollution in Africa. Taylor & Francis. London. pp. 47- 55.
109. Chepkemoi, Joyce. "What Is The Environmental Impact Of The Mining Industry?" World Atlas, 2017, worldatlas. com/articles/what-is-the-environmental- impact-of-the-mining-industry.html. viewed on the 15 of September 2019.
110. Overview of Mining and its Impacts, Guidebook for Evaluating Mining Project EIAs, p.14.
111. Nguepjouo, D., & Manyacka, E. (2008). Exploitation minière artisanale dans la province de l’Est Cameroun: Cas du département de la Boumba et Ngoko – Etats des lieux : constats, analyses et recommandations. Yaoundé: CED Cameroon. See equally Forton, O.T., Manga, V.E., Tening, A.S. and Asaah, A.V. (2012). Land conta mination risk management in Cameroon: A critical review of the existing policy framework. Land use policy. 29 (4): 750-760.
112. Tieguhong Julius Chupezi et al., (2009), Impacts of artisanal gold and diamond mining on livelihoods and the environment in the San gha Tri -National Park landscape, CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia, p.21.
113. Diderot Nguepjouo, African Agency and Geological Resources in Africa: Advancing Local Interests in China’s Mining Investments in Cameroon, PhD Thesis, University of Frankfurt am Main, 2017, p.102.
114. Ibid. NJEL (2020 ) 14–39 © Law Journals 2020. All Rights Reserved Page 39
115. International Institute for Environment and Development (2002) “Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development: Chapter 9: Local Communities and Mines. Breaking New Grounds.” http://www.iied.org/ pubs/pdfs/ G00901.pdf
116. Ngong Ntendah N. Reparation of environmental prejudice under the Cameroonian Investment Law, Master’s Dissertation, University of Dschang, FSJP, 2018, p.65.
117. Matthew hall, victims of environmental harm rights, recognition and redress under national and international law, Routledge Frontiers of Criminal Justice London and New York, 2013, p.97.
118. Ngong Ntendah N. Reparation of environmental prejudice under the Cameroonian Investment Law, Master’s Dissertation, University of Dschang, FSJP, 2018, op cit.
119. Ayuk Macbert Nk ongho, The Protection of the Rights of Suspects in Pre -trial Detention within the Perspective of Remand in Police Custody under the Cameroonian Legal System. Journal of Human Rights Law and Practice , 2018; 1(2): p.72.
120. Ngong Ntendah N. op cit.
121. Decree No.2005/260 of 15 July 2005 creating the MINIMIDT op cit.
122. Anselme Kamga et al. Journal of Mining & Environment, Vol.9, No.2, 2018 p.304
123. For instance, in the United States of America, there is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that is an independent agency of the federal government for environmental protection. The agency works with industries and has enforcement powers which include fines, sanctions and other measures.
124. Sama N.J., criminal law and environmental, prosecutor, inspectors and NGOs in Cameroon, Foundation for environmental and Development {FEDEV} N.W.P Cameroon, 2003, p.6.
125. See section 5 (28) Law N° 2003/006 of 21 April 2003 Law to lay down safety regulations governing modern biotechnology in Cameroon.
126. Sama N.J., 2003, op cit.
127. Ibid. Cite this Article Tasiki Desvarieux Ntobengwia, Ndung Chantal Mbong, Nyingchia Angela Kemei. Governing Mining Activities and Environmental Protection in Cameroon: What Prospects for Effective Implementation? National Journal of Environmental Law. 2020; 3(2): 14–39p.
