Project-Induced Displacement & Compensatory Models: A Cross-Jurisdictional Analysis
Keywords:
compensation, afforestation, CAMPA, displacement, rehabilitation, re-settlement, forests.Abstract
The aim of the project is to understand the international best practices in compensation of local people when project-induced displacement and subsequent afforestation takes place. There are international guidelines and recommendations on the approach that countries must adopt towards re-settlement of displaced communities and afforestation. Based on the framework provided by the international instruments, India has created national laws and rules to facilitate the timely rehabilitation of the communities displaced by industrial projects and the loss of green cover caused. There are several shortcomings in the national regime for compensation and afforestation. The initial section deals with the question why compensatory afforestation has failed in India. The problems in the national laws are critically analyzed to highlight the reasons for the same. It is followed by a study on compensation models followed in other countries such as China and Peru. The frameworks recommended by IFC and World Bank are also elaborated to provide a comparative framework to assess the compensation models implemented in India and abroad vis-a-vis the normative frameworks. Towards the conclusion, it is argued that even though funds are available there is no community participation and there is hugely inefficient project management in the compensatory afforestation efforts undertaken in India. This directly affects the amount of compensation and income that people receive from afforestation activities. thereby defeating the aim of the compensatory afforestation regime.
References
1. [I.A. Nos. 1424 -1425 of 2005 in Writ Petition (Civil) No. 202 of 1995].
2. Soumitra Ghosh, Compensatory Afforestation, 52(38) ECON & POL WKLY (Sept 2017).
3. Manasi Karthik and Arpitha Kodiveri, The Great Indian Land Grab Being Carried out in the Name of Compensatory Afforestation, THE WIRE, January 30 th, 2018. Retrieved from https://thewire.in/environment/great- indian-land-grab-carried-name- compensatory-afforestation
4. RICARDO CARRERE & LARRY LOHMANN, PULPING THE SOUTH (1996).
5. W.P. (Civil) No.180/2011 Orissa Mining Corpn. Vs. Ministry of Environment and Forests & Ors.
6. Press Trust of India, We are being 'befooled' by executive: Supreme Court on diversion of funds , BUSINESS STANDARD, April 10 th 2018, available online at https://www.business- standard.com/article/current-affairs/we- are-being-befooled-by-executive-supreme- court-on-diversion-of-funds- 118041000890_1.html
7. OECD-DAC Guidelines for aid agencies on involuntary displacement and resettlement in development projects [Internet]. OECD Development Assistance Project-Induced Displacement & Compensatory Models Lakshana and Simran NJEL (2019) 35-45 © Law Journals 2019. All Rights Reserved Page 44 Committee Guidelines on Aid and Environment No. 3. Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (1992). Available from: http://www.oecd.org/dac/environmentdeve lopment/1887708.pdf (last accessed 20:25 24-3-19).
8. IFC, Handbook for preparing a resettlement action plan (2002 Washington DC: IFC) Available from: http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/22ad 72004 8855b25880cda6a6515bb18/ ResettlementHandbook. PDF?MOD=AJPERES
9. United Nations, the guiding principles on business and human rights: implementing the United Nations ‘Respect, Prote ct and Remedy Framework’ (2011 New York and Geneva: United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner), Available online from: http:// www.ohchr.org/ Documents/Publications/ GuidingPrinciplesBusinessHR_EN.pdf (last accessed 20:23 24-3-19).
10. United Nations, Basic principles and guidelines on development -based evictions and displacement (2007) Annex 1 of the report of the Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living, Available from: http://www. ohchr.org/ Documents/Issues/Housing/Guidelines_en .pdf (last accessed 20:21 24-3-19).
11. Frank Vanclay, Project-induced displacement and resettlement: from impoverishment risks to an opportunity for development? 35(1) IMPACT ASSESSMENT AND PROJECT APPRAISAL 3-21 (201), available online at https://doi.org/10.1080 /14615517.2017.1278671 (last accessed 20:20 24-3-19).
12. OLIVER-SMITH A., DEFYING DISPLACEMENT: GRASSROOTS RESISTANCE AND THE CRITIQUE OF DEVELOPMENT (2010 Austin: University of Texas Press).
13. IFC, Strategic community investment: a good practice handbook for companies doing business in emerging markets (2010 Washington DC: International Finance Corporation). Available from: http://www. ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/topics_ext_conte nt/ifc_external_ cor porate_site/ifc+ sustainability/learning+and+adapting/ knowledge+products/publications/publicat ions_ handbook_communityinvestment __wci__1319576907570
14. P.S. Gutman, Involuntary Resettlement in Hydropower Projects , 19 ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 189-210 (November 1994).
15. A.J. Faas, Eric C. Jones, Graham A. Tobin, Linda M. Whiteford & Arthur D. Murphy, Critical aspects of social networks in a resettlement setting, 25(2) DEVELOPMENT IN PRACTICE (2015).
16. Daley, E., Gendered Impacts of Commercial Pressures on Land. Rome: International Land Coalition (2011) http://www.landcoalition.org/sites/default/ files/ documents/resources/MOKORO_ Gender_web_11.03.11.pdf.
17. Emel J., M. Makene & E. Wangari, Problems with Reporting and Evaluating Mining In dustry Community Development Projects, 4 Sustainability 257 –77 (2012) http://www.mdpi.com/2071- 1050/4/2/257/pdf.
18. Scott Wilson, Lake Turkana Wind Power Project, Kenya Resettlement Policy Framework (November 2011).
19. China: Afforestation Project in Shandong Improves Environment and Farmers’ Incomes (May 2019), The World Bank, available at https://www.worldbank.org /en/results/2017/07/26/china- afforestation-project-in-shandong- improves-environment-and-farmers- incomes, last seen on 20.03.2019
20. New Look Satellite Data Quantifies , World Agro Forestry (August 2018), available at http://www.worldagroforestry.org/news/ne w-look-satellite-data-quantifies-scale- chinas-afforestation-success, last seen on 20.03.2019
21. China’s Reforestation Programs: Big Success or Just an Illusion?, Yale E360 (2016), available at https://e360. yale.edu/features/chinas_reforestation_pro grams_big_success_or_just_an_illusion, last seen on 06.02.2019. NJEL (2019) 35-45 © Law Journals 2019. All Rights Reserved Page 45
22. Afforestation not so cool , Downtoearth.org.in (June 2018), available at https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/ afforestation-not-so-cool-33727, last seen on 05.03.2019.
23. Mapped: Where ‘Afforestation’ Is Taking Place Around the World | Carbon Brief". Carbon Brief, 2019, ), available at https://www.carbonbrief.org/mapped- where-afforestation-is-taking-place- around-the-world, last seen on 07.03.2019.
24. Peasant participation in Community Reforestation (UNDP), Four Communities in the Department of Cuzco, Peru (July 2019), available at http://www.fao.org/3 /u9095e/U9095E00.HTM#TopOfPage, last seen on 09.03.2019.
25. Reforestation: the easiest way to combat climate change | UN DESA | United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (October 2004), available at http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/n ews/forest/reforestation-the-easiest.html, last seen on 14.03.2019.
26. Wastewater Management Can Assist Afforestation". UN Environment , 2019, https://www.unenvironment.org/news- and-stories/story/wastewater-management- can-assist-afforestation, last seen on 08.01.2019.
27. Halting deforest ation within reach if we step up action, say UN experts | UN DESA | United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (November 2016), available at https://www.un.org/ development/desa/en/news/forest/halting- deforestation-for-sdgs.html, last seen o n 13.01.2019.
28. Supra 27; Forests.:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform , (June 2008), available at, Sustainabledevelopment.un.org, available at https://sustainabledevelopment. un.org/topics/forests , last seen on 11.03.2019.
29. Concept of compensatory afforestation is seriously flawed, The Economic Times (May 2018) , available at https:// economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/envir onment/developmental-issues/concept-of- compensatory-afforestation-is-seriously- flawed/articleshow/64855333.cms?from= mdr, last seen on 19.03.2019.
30. UN-REDD Programme". UN-REDD Programme, (January 2019), available at https://www.un-redd.org, last seen on 09.03.2019.Unfccc.int (June 2017), available at https://unfccc.int/resource /docs/publications/cdm_afforestation_bro_ web.pdf, last seen on 01.03.2019.
31. 5 Successful Reforestation Projects , Insteading, available at https://insteading.com/blog/reforestation- projects/ (January 2019) , last seen on 20.03.2019. Cite this Article Lakshana R . Role of Carbon Tax in Containing Carbon Emission – A Comprehensive Analysis. National Journal of Environmental Law. 2019; 2(1): 35–45p.
