Human Rights of HIV/AIDS Patients with Special Reference to the Prisoners in Bangladesh
Keywords:
Human rights, HIV/AIDS, Prisoners, Social position, Protection, International communityAbstract
Human rights are inherent in our nature and without these, the concept of society is meaningless. These rights and issues, irrespective of civil, political, social, economic or cultural matter are inter-dependable as well as inter-linked. The absence of human rights in any society is basically a denial of human dignity. Protection of human rights among many others depends on an effective criminal justice system. Criminal justice is based on different stages of the court proceedings, functions of police and prosecutions such as filing of a case, arrest, investigation, framing of charge, trial, conviction or acquittal etc. The criminal law of every country defines certain acts, as crime and provides sanctions against individuals who are held responsible for the commission of such acts. An individual who is charged with the commission of a crime is regarded as an accused. Accused who are arrested and proceeded against for criminal trial are treated as prisoners. The right to defense enables the accused to defend himself/herself against the charges brought against him/her by using all the facilities given by law. The efforts for the protection of the rights of public in general and of the prisoners in particular have been addressed in many international human rights instruments. However, problems like delay in trials due to paucity of courts or judges and unhygienic environment in the jail caused by over-crowding of prisoners need to be examined for the protection of the rights of the prisoners. Protection of the rights and interests of the prisoners as well as their psychological and economic assistance is vitally important for the fair implementation of criminal laws and also for gaining public confidence in criminal justice system. Therefore, this study will seek to explore those particular factors that impair the criminal justice system and hinder the rights of the prisoners, which will probably be essentially important for the protection of the rights of the prisoners. As prisoners are entitled to enjoy human rights by dint of international and national laws, ensuring these rights is essential to understand how far the purpose of imprisonment is achieved. Though many have tried to evaluate the human rights of the prisoners, none has tried to show the situation with another vulnerable and sensitive group who are prisoners and also HIV patients and who need extra care. The jail being a breeding place of HIV, it is extremely necessary to ascertain human rights of the HIV patients as well as the vulnerable prisoners by analyzing the overall human right situation in prisons since they are meant to integrate with the society. The quest for human rights has become a fundamental aim of the modern states. The twenty first century has witnessed the efforts of international community to develop national, regional and international measures for the protection and promotion of human rights of the HIV/AIDS patients. This study seeks to correlate internationally and nationally protected human rights, which are applicable in the criminal proceedings. The prison system in Bangladesh has been set forth in detail and a comparison with the provisions of the UDHR and the ICCPR are being dealt with in this study. The purpose of this study is to show and examine the legal and social position of the HIV/AIDS patient prisoners and recognition of their rights within the purview of international as well as national law of Bangladesh. The study has also reflected on human rights situation with regard to the prisoners in Bangladesh.
References
1. Bassiouni M. Cherif. (Ed.). The Protection of Human Rights in the Administration of Criminal Ju stice: A Compendium of United Nations Norms and Standards . Transnational Publishers. 1994.
2. Batra M. Protection of Human Rights in Criminal Justice Administration . New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications. 1989.
3. Beatty DM. Human Rights and Judicial Review: A Comparative Perspective . London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers . 1994. IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 40
4. Bossuyt Marc. J. Guide to the Travaux Preparatories of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights . Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 1987.
5. Brownlie. Basic Documents in International Law.Oxford. 1972.
6. Buergental T. International Human Rights. Washington DC. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1996.
7. Chaturveeli AN. Rights of Accused under Indian Constitution. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications.1984.
8. Cook, JG. Constitutional Rights of the Accused, Pre-trial Rights. New York: The Lawyers Co -operative Publishing Co. 1972.
9. Dijk, Pieter van. The Right of Accused to a Fair trial under International Law . Utrecht. G.J. Wiarda Institute for Legal Research. 1983.
10. English K , Stapleton A. The Human Rights Handbook: A Practical Guide to Monitoring Human Rights . Juta & Co. Ltd. 1997.
11. Fellman D. The Defendant’s Rights under English Law. Madison: Wisconsin U. P. 1966.
12. Francis G. Jacobs. The European Convention on Human Rights . Oxford. Clarendon Press.1975.
13. Ghandhi PR. Balckstone ’s International Human Rights Documents, (2 nd Edition).Blackstone Press Limited. 2000.
14. Henkin L. (Ed.). The International Bill of Rights: The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights . New York : Columbia University Press. 1981.
15. Kalaiah A.B. Human Rights in International Law. New Delhi: Deep Deep Publications. 1986.
16. Kelkar RV. Outlines of Criminal Procedure. Lucknow: Eastern Book Company Law Publishers. 1984.
17. Lauterpatch. International Law and Human Right s. Hamden: Archon Books. 1968.
18. P. van Dijk , GJH van Hoof . Theory and practice of the European Convention . Kluwer Deventer Publishers. 1983.
19. Robertson AH. Human Rights in the World. Manchester University Press. 1999.
20. Paul S. The International Law of Human Rights. New York: Oxford University Press. 1984.
21. Bari ME. The universal declaration of human rights - The Magna -Carta of mankind, human rights in contemporary international law. Human Rights and Development Review. 1995; V. Humanist and Ethical Association of Bangladesh, Dhaka.
22. Baxi U. Right to speedy trial geare, gander and judicial sauce. 25 Indian Journal of International Law.1983; 90.
23. Bhagwati PN. Human rights in the criminal justice. 12 Indian Bar Review . 1986; 22.
24. Brody. The United Nations creates a working group on arbitrary detention. American Journal of International Law . 1991; 709.
25. Haque Mozammel. J., Human rights and right to liberty: before and now. Dhaka: Human Rights Law. 1997.
26. Hossain KUJ. The Intern ational Bill of Human Rights and Bangladesh .Dhaka: Human Rights Law. 1997.
27. Khan H. The role of judiciary in the promotion and protection of human rights. The Dhaka University Studies. June 1993; Part F: Vol. IV.
28. Nigam KK. Due process of law: A comparative study of procedural guarantees against deprivation of personal liberty in the United States and India . 4 Law.1962; 99.
29. Patwary MI. Human rights in Islamic law and modern international law : A comparative study. Human Rights and Development Review .1995; V. Humanist and Ethical Association of Bangladesh Publications.
30. Rahman, A. M. M. J., Human Rights and the Role of Judiciary, The Main Stream Law Report, Vol. 1 (1966), Dhaka.
31. Rahman AMM. J., Human rights violation and remedies under constitutional law of Bangladesh. Dhaka: Main Stream Law Report.1997; 11.
32. Ud-Din MF. The protection and promotion of human rights: International perspective. Law Journal of the Faculty of Law Rajshahi University, Bangladesh.1998.
33. Ud-Din MF , Hannan MA. Protection of human rights in criminal justice in Bangladesh. Research Project . Rajshahi University, Bangladesh.1999. HIV/AIDS Patients with Special Reference to the Prisoners in Bangladesh Hannan and Faisal IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 41
34. This is a modified version of a Research Project submitted at the University Grants Commission of Bangladesh (UGC) in 2018. The author wishes to thank the UGC for the assistance received during work on this project and acknowledge the contribution of Mr. Kamrul Faisal as Research Associate for collecting data.
35. Human Rights Today – in UN Briefing Papers. UN Publications: October, 1998; 6.
36. Batra M .Protection of Human Rights in Criminal Justice Administration. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications . 1989; 7.
37. Hereinafter referred to as the UDHR.
38. Hereinafter referred to as the ICCPR or the Covenant. The Covenant is the component of the International Bill of Human Rights, which were adopted unanimously by 106 States on December 1966 and entered into force in 1976. In 2000 Bangladesh acceded to the ICCPR considered by the human rights experts as the most influential human rights mechanism of the United Nations. Through this ratification Bangladesh has undertaken to respect and to ensure all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the Covenant without discrimination of any kind.
39. Sharma PD. Police and Criminal Justice Administration in India. New Delhi: National Book Organization. 1985; 145.
40. Paranjape NV. Criminology and Penology, Ninth edition. Allahabad, India: Central Law Publication.1996; 244.
41. Bengal Jail Code, 1894, Chapter I.
42. The Prisons Act, 1894 (Act No. IX of 1894), Section 3.
43. Acosta vs. Uruguay. Report of the Thirty- ninth Session (A/39/40), annex. XI.
44. The Prisons Act 1894, Section 56.
45. Nowak M. UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary. Kehl: Engel Publishers. 1993; 6.
46. See the Global Report on the AIDS Epidemic (UNAIDS). 2010.
47. World Health Organization, World Health Assembly, Avoidance of Discrimination Against HIV-Infected Persons and Persons with AIDS, preamble, resolution WHA41.24. May 13, 1988.
48. See, for example, Statement from the community AIDS movement in Africa, presented at the meeting on the international partnership against HIV/AIDS in Africa, New York, UN Headquarters, Dec 6-7, 1999.
49. World Health Organization, World Health Assembly, Resolution WHA 40.26, Global Strategy for the Prevention and Control of AIDS, Geneva, WHO. 5 May 1987.
50. Mann J, Gostin L, Gruskin S, et al. Health and Human Rights. Health Hum Rights94; 1(1):6-23.
51. http://www.unbd.org/Docs/Publication/U NDP/hsr/Chapter%205.pdf
52. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles /PMC1470637/
53. Castro K, Shansky R, Scardino V, et al. HIV transmission in correctional facilities. In: Program and abstracts of the VII International Conference on AIDS; June 16-21, 1991; Florence, Italy. Abstract M.C.3067; Brewer TF, Vlahov D, Taylor E, Hall D, Munoz A , Polk BF. Transmission of HIV-1 within a statewide prison system. Aids 1988; 2:363-7.
54. Yirrell DL, Goldberg DJ, Robertson P, et al. Molecular investigation confirming an outbreak of HIV in a Scottish prison. In: Program and abstracts of the XI International Conference on AIDS; July 7- 12, 1996; Vancouver, Canada. Abstract Mo.C.153
55. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). HIV transmission among male inmates in a state prison system--Georgia, 1992 -2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006 Apr 21;55(15):421-6.
56. Turnbull PJ, Dolan KA, Stimson GV, et al. Prison decreases the prevalence of behaviors but increases the risks. In: Program and abstracts of the VIII International Conference on AIDS; July 19-24, 1992; Amsterdam. Abstract PoC4321.
57. Carvell AL, Hart GJ. Risk behaviors for HIV infection among drug users in prison. BMJ. 1990; 300:1383-4.
58. Taylor A, Goldberg D, Emslie J, et al. Outbreak of HIV infection in a Scottish prison. BMJ. 1995 Feb 4; 310(6975): 289- 92. IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 42
59. Dolan KA, Wodak A, HIV transmission in a prison system in an Australian State. Med J Aust 1999. Jul 5; 171(1):14-17.
60. Dolan J, Kite B, Aceijas C, et al. HIV in prison in low -income and middle -income countries. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007; 14:32–
61. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Comprehensive review (Evidence for Action Technical Paper) Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
62. Macalino GE, Hou JC, Kumar MS, et al. Hepatitis C infection and in carcerated populations. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2004; 14:103 –114. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2003.10.006.
63. Jürgens R, Ball A, Verster A. Interventions to reduce HIV transmission related to injecting drug use in prison. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009; 14:57–66. doi: 10.1016/S1473- 3099(08)70305-0.
64. Reindollar RW. Hepatitis C and the correctional population. American Journal of Medicine. 1999;14(6B):100S–103S.
65. Bird A, Gore S, Burns S. Study of infection with HIV and related risk factors in young offenders ’ institution. BMJ.1993;14:228–231. doi: 10.1136/bmj.307.6898.228.
66. Glass G, Hausler WJ, Loeffelholz PL, et al. Seroprevalence of HIV antibody among individuals entering the Iowa prison system. American Journal of Public Health. 1988;14(4):447–449. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.78.4.447.
67. Martin V, Bayas IM, Laliga A. Seroepidemiology of HIV-1 infection in a Catalonian penitentiary. AIDS. 1990; 14:1023–1026. doi: 10.1097/00002030 - 199010000-00013.
68. Vlahov D, Brewer TF, Castro KG. Prevalence of antibody to HIV -1 among entrants to US correctional facilities. Association. 1991; 14:1129 –32. doi: 10.1001/jama.265.9.1129.
69. Estebanez P. Prevalence and risk factors for HIV infection among inmates. IV International Conference on AIDS, 1988; Stockholm, Sweden. Abstract no 4202.
70. Truman BI, Morse D, Mikl J. HIV seroprevalence and risk factors among prison inmates entering New York State Prisons. IV International Conference on AIDS, 1988; Stockholm. Abstract no 4207.
71. Calzavara L, Ramuscak L, Burchell AN, et al. Prevalence of HIV and hepatitis C virus infections among inmates of Ontario remand facilities. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2007; 14:257 –261. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.060416.
72. Jürgens R, Csete J, Amon JA et al. People who use drugs, HIV, and human rights. The Lancet. 2010;14(9739):475–485. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60830-6.
73. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles /PMC3123257/
74. Dolan J, Kite B, Aceijas C, et al. HIV in prison in low-income and middle -income countries. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007; 14:32–
75. Nagaraj SG, Sarvade M, Muthanna L, et al. XIII International AIDS Conference, July 2000. Durban, South Africa; HIV seroprevalence and prevalent attitudes amongst the prisoners: A case study in Mysore, Karnataka state India.
76. Simooya OO, Sanjobo N, Kaetano L, et al. Behind walls: a study of HIV risk behaviors and seroprevalence in prisons in Zambia. AIDS. 2001; 14:1741–1744. doi: 10.1097/00002030-200109070-00023.
77. Dolan J, Kite B, Aceijas C, et al. HIV in prison in low -income and middle -income countries. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007; 14:32–
78. Spaulding AC, Weinbaum CM, Lau DT, et al. A framework for management of hepatitis C in prisons. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2006;14(10):762–769.
79. Dartmouth Medical School. Hepatitis C: An Epidemic for Anyone. Dartmouth Medical School; 2011. http://www.epidemic.org/theFacts/theEpid emic/worldPrevalence/
80. Singh S , Prasad R, Mohanty A. High prevalence of sexually transmitted and blood-borne infections amongst the inmates of a district jail in Northern India. International Journal of STD & AIDS. 1999;14(7):475–478. doi: 10.1258/0956462991914357. HIV/AIDS Patients with Special Reference to the Prisoners in Bangladesh Hannan and Faisal IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 43
81. Pallas JR, Fariñnas-Álvarez C, Prieto D, et al. Risk factors for monoinfections and coinfections with HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses in northern Spanish prisoners. Epidemiol Infect. 1999; 14:95– Health Canada - Public Health Agency of Canada. Hepatitis C Virus Transmission in the Prison/Inmate Population. Canada Communicable Disease Report. 2004;14(16):141–148.
82. Monjur K , Md. Muajjem Hussain . ibid., pp.322–23.
83. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/count ries-with-the-highest-rates-of-hiv- aids.html; collected on 27.05.18
84. Samuels F, Wagle S. Population mobility and HIV and AIDS: review of laws, policies and treaties between Bangladesh, Nepal and India . London: Overseas Development Institute. 2011.
85. “Health Profile: Bangladesh” . United States Agency for International Development (March 2008). Accessed 25 August 2008.
86. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed 10 Aug 2012; HIV in correctional settings. http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/correctional
87. Maruschak L. HIV in prisons, 2001–2010. (NCJ 238877) Washington, DC: U.S Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 2012.
88. Begier EM, Bennani Y, Forgione L, et al. Undiagnosed HIV infection among New York city jail entrants, 2006: results of a blinded serosurvey. J Acquir Immune DeficSyndr.2010;54(1):93–101.
89. Anderson RM. The transmission dynamics of sexually transmitted diseases: the behavioral component. In: Wasserheit JN, Aral SO, Holmes KK, et al., editors. Research issues in human behavior and sexually transmitted diseases in the AIDS era. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1991. Aral SO. Determinants of STD epidemics: implications for phase appropriate intervention strategies. Sex Transm.Infect.2002;78(Suppl 1 ): i 3–i13. Blanchard JF. Populations, pathogens, and epidemic phases: Closing the gap between theory and practice in the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases. Sex Transm Infect.2002;78 (Suppl 1): i183–i188.
90. https://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/HIV_ AIDS(1).pdf
91. Bangladesh Serological Surveillance Survey 2006.
92. Government of Bangladesh. World AIDS Day Report. 2008.
93. “Health Profile: Bangladesh ”. United States Agency for International Development. March 2008. Accessed August 25, 2008.
94. Samuels F, Wagle S. Population mobility and HIV and AIDS: review of laws, policies and treaties between Bangladesh, Nepal and India . London: Overseas Development Institute. 2011.
95. “Health Profile: Bangladesh ”. United States Agency for International Development. March 2008. Accessed August 25, 2008.
96. “STETHOSCOPE”. Health and Medical Journal, The Daily Independent . Dec 2, 2013; 12p.
97. HIV/AIDS in Bangladesh . World Bank . Jul 10, 2012.
98. See, http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature /2012/07/10/hiv-aids-bangladesh
99. National Policy on HIV/AIDS and STD Related Issues, UNAIDS Global Report . 2012.
100. Howlader, Md. Emdadul Haque . Global and Bangladesh’s Response to HIV/AIDS. The Daily Independent. Dec2013.
101. Bangladesh Technical Support Plan for HIV and AIDS 2008-2015.UNAIDS. 2008.
102. HIV/AIDS in Bangladesh, World Bank, July 10, 2012.
103. See, http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/fe ature/2012/07/10/hiv-aids-bangladesh.
104. The Daily Star. Dec 1,2013.
105. Bangladesh Technical Support Plan for HIV and AIDS 2008-2015.UNAIDS. 2008.
106. Ibid IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 44
107. Bangladesh: Promoting HIV prevention – a critical need also in prisons . UNODC.2014. (https://www.unodc.org/southasia//frontpa ge/2012/November/bangladesh_- promoting-hiv-prevention-in-prisons-a- critical-but-often-overlooked- initiative.html)
108. ‘An Advocacy Workshop with media personnel,’ Addiction Management and Integrated Care (AMIC), Dhaka Ahsania Mission (DAM), 2010. (http://www.amic.org.bd/index.php?option =com_content&view=article&id=74)
109. 3rd National Strategic Plan for HIV and AIDS Response 2011 - 2015, National AIDS/STD Program (NASP), Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, the Government of the Peoples’ Republic of Bangladesh.
110. Harm Reduction Coalition (2007, January) ‘Syringe exchange in prisons: The international experience’
111. United Nations General Assembly, Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS, New York: United Nations, 2001: paragraphs 16, 58 (A/RES/S-26/2).
112. Adopted by the First United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, held at Geneva in 1955, and approved by the Economic and Social Council by its resolutions 663 C (XXIV) of 31 July 1957 and 2076 (LXII) of 13 May 1977.
113. http://legal- dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Prisoners %27+Rights, last visited 12 Nov 2011.
114. Pereira F. Prison Reform: Inescapable Truth and Immediate Necessities. Journal of Law. Apr 2004; ii (1): 9p.
115. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, Art. 25 (1).
116. http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2004/09/0 2/index.htm, last visited 10 January 2012.
117. The Standard Minimum Rules, Ss. 11& 12.
118. The Standard Minimum Rules, Ss. 15, 17 & 19.
119. http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2004/09/0 2/index.htm, last visited 10 Jan 2012.
120. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966, Art. 7.
121. The Constitution of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Art. 44.
122. The Prison Act, 1894, s. 24(3).
123. The Prison Act, 1894, s. 33(1).
124. 441 U.S.520, 99 S.ct.1861, L.Ed.2d 447 (1979).
125. http://legal-dictionary.the free - dictionary.com/prisoners%27+ Rights, last visited 12 November 2011.
126. Siddique A. Criminology and Penology ,6thedn.Lucknow:Eastern Book Company. 2009;199–200.
127. Kader M, Md. Muaj jem Hussain .ibid., p.256.
128. 393 U.S.483.
129. http://legal-dictionary.the freedictionary.com/Prisoners%27+Rights1 , last visited 12 November 2011
130. Article 24, The Prisons Act, 1894.
131. Article 38, Ibid
132. National policy on HIV/AIDS and STD related issues, Nat ional Aids Committee Bangladesh. Oct1995.
133. HIV-AIDS: Getting to Zero. Health and Medical Journal ‘STETHOSCOPE’. The Daily Independent. Dec 2, 2013; 14p.
134. The Daily Jai Jai Din. Dec 1, 2013; 6p.
135. Gordon DF. The next wave of HIV/AIDS: Nigeria, Ethiopia, Russia, India and China, Washington D.C . National Intelligence Council. 2002.
136. The Daily Prothom-Alo. Dec 1, 2013; 3p.
137. HIV in prisons and jails, IAPAC (International Association of Providers of AIDS Care), February 24, 2014. (http://www.aidsinfonet.org/fact_sheets/vi ew/615).
138. http://www.thedailystar.net/2004/06/13/d4 0613150295.htm, last visited 10 Jan 2012.
139. http://legal-dictionary.the freedictionary.com/Prisoners%27+Rights1 , last visited 12 Nov 2011.
140. http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2004/09/0 2/index.htm, last visited 10 January 2012.
141. The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898, s. 401 (4A).
142. http://www.odhikar.org/report/pdf/hr_6mo nths2008.pdf, last visited 19 Dec2011.
143. http://www.thedailystar.net/2004/06/13/d4 0613150295.htm, last visited 10 Jan 2012.
144. http://www.odhikar.org/report/pdf/hr_6mo nths2008.pdf, last visited 19 Dec 2011.
145. The Daily Star. 11 May 2008;13p. HIV/AIDS Patients with Special Reference to the Prisoners in Bangladesh Hannan and Faisal IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 45
146. The ProthomAlo.26 Dec 2009; 1p.
147. Kader M, Md. Muajjem Hussain .ibid. 332p.
148. Paranjape NV.Criminology and Penology, 13th ed. Allahabad: Central Law Publications. 2008-09.
149. http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2007/janu a ry /02/opinion.htm, last visited 10 Jan 2012.
150. Paranjape NV.Ibid. 397p.
151. Sheikh Hafizur Rahman Karzon .Ibid. 301p.
152. Kader M, Md. Muajjem Hussain.Ibid.330- 31pp.
153. Sultan, Mohammad Tipu, Rights of Prisoners.ASK. 2006.
154. Ravaging the vulnerable: Abuse against Persons at high risk of HIV infection in Bangladesh. Human Rights Watch . Aug 2003.
155. World Health Organization: Mental Health and Substance Abuse . May 2010. http://www.who.int/mental_health/en
156. Under Aged Prison Inmates in Bangladesh. Retired Police Officers Welfare Association Bangladesh (RPOWAB). Nov 2008.
157. Operational Guidance Note, Bangladesh. Home Office, UK Boarder Agency . Oct 2010. http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4cc683fe2. pdf
158. HIV in prisons and jails . IAPAC (International Association of Providers of AIDS Care). Feb 24, 2014. http://www.aidsinfonet.org/fact_sheets/vie w/615
159. The Daily Prothom-Alo. Dec 1, 2013.
160. Bangladesh OGN v10.0 Issued . Immigration and Border Policy Directorate, Bangladesh Home Office. Sep 2013.
161. Sheikh Hafizur Rahman Karzon . Theoretical and Applied Criminology, 1st ed. Dhaka: Palal Prokashoni. 2008.
162. http://www.thedailystar.net/law/2004/09/0 2/index.htm, last visited 10 Jan 2012.
163. Paranjape NV.Ibid.400p.
164. The prison administration system of Bangladesh. The Lawyers & Jurists . Tuesday Oct 09, 2012 . www.lawyersnjurists.com
165. US Department of State . Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2012: Bangladesh. 19 Apr 2013 . http://www.state.gov/documents/organizati on/204607.pdf
166. Odhikar. Human Rights Report 2012 . 12 Jan2013. paragraph 179 and Table 4. http://odhikar.org/wp- content/uploads/2013/01/report-Annual- Human-Rights-Report-2012-eng.pd
167. http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/se arch?q=cache:GPvyKKRTUZYJ:www.ref world.org/pdfid/5236fec34.pdf+&cd=6&h l=en&ct=clnk&gl=bd
168. Ball A. Multi-centrestudy on drug injecting and risk of HIV infection: A report prepared on behalf of the international collaborative group for World Health Organization Program on Substance Abuse. Geneva: WHO. 1995; Beyrer C, Jittiwutikarn J, Teokul W. Drug use, increasing incarceration rates, and prison-associated HIV risks in Thailand. AIDS and Behavior. 2003;14(2):153–161. doi: 10.1023/A:1023946324822.
169. Gore SM, Bird AG, Burns SM, et al. Drug injection and HIV prevalence in inmates of Glenochil Prison. British Medical Journal.1995;14:293–296pp.
170. Plourde C, Brochu S. Drugs in prison: A break in the pathway. Substance Use Misuse.2002;14:47–63. doi: 10.1081/JA - 120001496.
171. Hughes RA, Huby M. Life in prison: Perspectives of drug injectors. Deviant Behavior.2000;14(5):451–479pp. doi: 10.1080/01639620050085843; Chu S, Peddle K. Under the skin: A people’s case for prison needle and syringe programs. Toronto: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network. 2010.
172. Drug injection and HIV/AIDS in Asia. 2005. http://www.mapnetwork.org/docs/MAP_I DU%20Book%2024Jun05_en.pdf MAP Report.
173. DiCenso A, Dias G, Gahagan J. Unlocking Our Futures: A National Study on Women, Prisons HIV, and Hepatitis C. Toronto: PASAN. 2003; Elwood Martin R, Gold F, Murphy W, et al . Drug us e and risk of bloodborne infections: A survey of female IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 46 prisoners in British Columbia. Canadian 101pp.
174. Rowhani-Rahbar A, Tabatabee -Yazdi A, Panahi M. Prevalence of common blood - borne infections among imprisoned injection drug users in Mashhad, North - East Iran. Archives of Iranian Medicine.2004;14(3):190–194pp.
175. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime & Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network. Accessibility of HIV Prevention, Treatment and Care Services for People who Use Drugs and Incarcerated People in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan: Legislative and Policy Analysis and Recommendations for Reform. Ashgabat: UNODC Regional Office for Central Asia; 2010; Godinho J. Reversing the Tide: Priorities fo r HIV/AIDS Prevention in Central Asia. Washington: The World Bank. 2005.
176. Cravioto P, Medina-Mora ME, de la Rosa B, et al. Patterns of heroin consumption in a jail on the northern Mexican border: Barriers to treatment access. Salud Publica de Mexico.2003;14:181–190pp.
177. Adjei AA, Armah HB, Gbagbo F, et al . Prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus and syphilis among prison inmates and officers at Nsawam and Accra, Ghana. Microbiology.2006;14:593–597pp. doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.46414-0.
178. Pearson M. Voluntary screening for hepatitis C in a Canadian federal penitentiary for men. Canadian Communicable Disease Report. 1995;14(14): F4–F5pp.
179. Rotily M, Weilandt C, Bird SM, et al . Surveillance of HIV infection and related risk behavior in European prisons. A multicentre pilot study. Eur J Public Health.2001;14(3):243–250pp. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/11.3.243.
180. Frost L, Tchertkov V. Prisoner risk taking in the Russian Federation. AIDS Education and Prevention.2002;14(Suppl B):7–23pp.
181. Albov AP, Issaev DD. Ministry of Internal Affairs, Dep. of Reformatory Affairs, St. Petersburg, Russia: Homosexual contacts among male prison inmates in Russia. Int ConfAIDS.Aug 7-12, 1994;14(2):53p.
182. Butler T, Milner L. The 2001 inmate health survey. Sydney: NSW Corrections Health Service. 2001.
183. Zachariah R, Harries AD, Chantulo, AS et al. Sexually transmitted infections among prison inmates in a rural district of Malawi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg.2002;14(6):617–619pp. doi: 10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90330-5.
184. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Comprehensive review (Evidence for Action Technical Paper). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
185. Human Rights Watch. No Escape: Male Rape in U.S. Prisons. New York: Human Rights Watch. 2001.
186. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Comprehensive review (Evidence for Action Technical Paper) Geneva: World Health Organization; 2007.
187. Human Rights Watch. No Escape: Male Rape in U.S. Prisons. New York: Human Rights Watch; 2001; Observatoire international des prisons. Le guide du prisonnier. Paris: Les Editions Ouvrières . 1996.
188. Schoub BD. AIDS and HIV in Perspective: A Guide to Understanding the Virus and its Consequences. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1995.
189. Dolan K, Rutter S, Wodak A. Prison-based syringe exchange programs: a review of international research and development. Addiction.2003;14:153–158pp. doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00309. x.
190. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Comprehensive review (Evidence for Action Technical Paper) Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
191. Richardson C, Ancelle -Park R, Papaevangelou G. Factors associated with HIV seropositivity in European injecting drug users. AIDS.1993;14:1485–1491. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199311000-00013; Koulierakis G, Gnardellis C, Agrafiotis D, et al. HIV risk behavior correlates among injecting drug users in Greek prisons. Addiction.2000;14(8):1207–16. doi: HIV/AIDS Patients with Special Reference to the Prisoners in Bangladesh Hannan and Faisal IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 47 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.95812077.x.; Davies AG, Dominy NJ, Peters A, et al . HIV and injecting drug users in Edinburgh: Prevalence and correlates. Syndrome Human - Retroviral.1995;14:399–405pp; Granados A, Miranda MJ, Martin L. VI International AIDS Conference. San Francisco; 1990. HIV seropositivity in Spanish prisons. Abstract no Th.D.116.; Martin V, Cayla JA, Moris ML, et al. Predictive factors of HIV-infection in injecting drug users upon incarceration. European Journal of Epidemiology.1998;14(4):327–331pp. doi: 10.1023/A:1007461608434.; Estebanez PE, Russel NK, Aguilar D, et al. Women, drugs and HIV/AIDS: results of a multicentre European study. International 743pp. doi: 10.1093/ije/29.4.734.
192. Heimer R. 16th International Conference on the Reduction of Drug Related Harm. Belfast; 2005. Imprisonment as risk for HIV in the Russian Federation: evidence for change.
193. Calzavara LM, Ramuscak N, Burchell AN. Prevalence and predictors of HIV and hepatitis C in Ontario jails and detention centres. Final report. HIV Social, Behavioral, and Epidemiological Studies Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto. 2005.
194. Hacker MA, Friedman SR, Telles PR, et al. The role of “long-term” and “new” injectors in a declining HIV/AIDS epidemic in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Subst Use Misuse. 2005;14(1):99–123pp. doi: 10.1081/JA-200030511.
195. Zamani S, Kihara M, Gouya MM, et al . Prevalence of and factors associated with HIV-1 infection among drug users visiting treatment centers in Tehran, Iran. AIDS.2005;14(7):709–716pp. doi: 10.1097/01.aids.0000166094.24069.72.
196. Choopanya K, Vanichseni S, Des] arlais DC. Risk factors and HIV seropositivity among injecting drug users in Bangkok. AIDS.1991;14:1509–1513pp. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199112000-00014.
197. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Comprehensive review (Evidence for Action Technical Paper) Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
198. Taylor A, Goldberg D. Outbreak of HIV infection in a Scottish prison: why did it happen? Canadian HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Newsletter.1996;14(3):13–14pp.
199. Dolan K, Hall W, Wodak A, et al . Evidence of HIV transmission in an Australian prison. Medical Journal of Australia.1994;14(11):734p.
200. Bobrik A, Danishevski K, Eroshina K, et al. Prison health in Russia: The larger picture. Journal of Public Health Policy.2005;14:30–59pp. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200002.
201. MacDonald M. A study of health care provision, existing drug services and strategies operating in prisons in ten countries from Central and Eastern Europe. Finland: Heuni. 2005.
202. Dolan K, Kite B, Black E, et al. Review of injection drug users and HIV infection in prisons in developing and transitional countries. UN Reference Group on HIV/AIDS Prevention and Care among IDUs in Developing and Transitional Countries. 2004.
203. Bobrik A, Danishevski K, Eroshina K, et al. Prison health in Russia: the larger picture. Journal of Public Health Policy.2005;14:30–59. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200002.
204. Krebs CP, Simmons M. Intraprison HIV transmission: an assessment of whether it occurs, how it occurs, and who is at risk. AIDS Education and Prevention. 2002;14 (Suppl B):53–64pp.
205. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), International Labour Organisation (ILO), World Health Organisation, UNAIDS. 2012.Policy brief: HIV prevention, treatment and care in prisons and other closed settings: a comprehensive package of interventions.
206. World Health Organization (2007).Effectiveness of interventions to address HIV in prisons.
207. U.S. Department of Justice. 2009. HIV in prisons. 2007-08.
208. World Health Organisation . 2007. Effectiveness of interventions to address HIV in prisons . Hammett, T.M. 2006 . HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 48 among correctional inmates: Transmission, burden, and an appropriate response . American Journal of Public Health . 96(6):974-978pp.
209. Turnball PJ, et al. Prisons, HIV and AIDS: Risks and experiences i n custodial care . Horsham: AVERT. 1991.
210. de Voux A , et al .Early Identification of HIV: Empirical Support for Jail -Based Screening. PLoS One.2012; 7(5):e37603.
211. Tartaro C, Levy MP. An evaluation of an HIV testing program in the jail setting: Results and recommendations. The Prison Journal.2012; 93(1):57-59pp.
212. Andrinopoulos K, et al. Establishment of an HIV/sexually transmitted disease program and prevalence of infection among incarcerated men in Jamaica . International Journal of STD & AIDS.2010; 21(2):114–119pp.
213. Karunesh T , et al . Preventing sexually transmitted infections among incarcerated men who have sex with men: A cost - effectiveness anal ysis. Sexually Transmitted Diseases .2009; 36(2):41- 48pp.
214. Makombe SD, et al.A national survey of prisoners on antiretroviral therapy in Malawi: Access to treatment and outcomes on therapy . The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries .2007; 1(3):303– 307pp.
215. Palepu A , et al .Initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy and continuity of HIV care: The impact of incarceration and prison release on adherence and HIV treatment outcomes . Antiviral Therapy.2004; 9(5):713–719pp.
216. All africa.South Africa: All HIV Positive Inmates to Receive Treatment . 21 Jul 2016.
217. Shalihu N , et al .Namibian prisoners describe barriers to HIV antiretroviral therapy adherence .AIDS Care .2014; 26(8):968–975pp.
218. Prisons ticking time bomb for HIV positive inmates. The Zimbabwean. 29 Oct 2010.
219. Wohl DA , et al . Intensive case management before and after prison release is no more effective than comprehensive pre -release discharge planning in linking HIV-infected prisoners to care: A randomized trial . AIDS and Behavior.2011; 15(2):356–364pp.
220. Effectiveness of interventions to address HIV in prisons. World Health Organization (WHO). 2007.
221. HIV Transmission and Prevention in Prisons.HIV InSite. 2006.
222. Health interventions for prisoners: Update of the literature since 2007. World Health Organisation (WHO). 2014.
223. On the fast -track to end AIDS by 2030: Focus on location and population . UNAIDS.2015.
224. Larney S. Does opioid substitution treatment in prisons reduce injecting - related HIV risk behaviors? A systematic review.Addiction.2010; 105(2):216– 223pp.
225. The global state of harm reduction. Harm Reduction International (IHRA). 2014.
226. Health Interventions for Prisoners: Update of the literature since 2007 .World Health Organization (WHO). 2014.
227. Moller LF, et al . Drug use in prisons in Kyrgyzstan: A study about the effect of health promotion among prisoners . International Journal of Prisoner Hea lth. 2008; 4(3):124–133pp.
228. Roshanfekr P , et al .The effectiveness of harm reduction programs in seven prisons of Iran. Iranian Journal of Public Health.2013; 42(12):1430–1437pp.
229. Ferrer-Castro V , et al . Evaluation of needle exchange program at Pereiro de Aguiar prison (Ourense, Spain): ten years of experience . Revista Española de SanidadPenitenciaria.2012; 14(1):3–11pp.
230. The Global State of Harm Reduction 2014.Harm Reduction International (IHRA). 2014.
231. HIV and AIDS in places of detention. A toolkit for poli cymakers, program managers, prison officers and health care providers in prison settings. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS. 2008.
232. Favrod-Coune T, et al. Opioid substitution treatment in pretrial pris on detention: a case study from Geneva, Switzerland . Swiss Medical Weekly.2013; 1(143). HIV/AIDS Patients with Special Reference to the Prisoners in Bangladesh Hannan and Faisal IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 49
233. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2013) ‘Rolling out of Opioid substitution treatment (OST) in Tihar. prisons, India: Scientific Report‘
234. Eshrati B , et al . Preventing HIV transmission among Iranian prisoners: Initial support for providing education on the benefits of harm reduction practices . Harm Reduction Journal .2008; 5(21):1– 7pp; Hedrich D, et al. The effectiveness of opioid maintenance treatment in prison settings: a systematic review . Addiction.2012; 107(3):501–517pp.
235. Jürgens R, et al . HIV and incarceration: Prisons and detention. International AIDS Society.2011; 14(26).
236. Effectiveness of interventions to address HIV in prisons. World Health Organization. 2007.
237. HIV and AIDS in places of detention. A toolkit for policymakers, program managers, prison officers and health care providers in prison settings. United Nations Offic e on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS. 2008.
238. Butler T, et al. Condoms for prisoners: no evidence that they increase sex in prison, but they increase safe sex . Sexually Transmitted Infections .2013; 89(5):377– 379.
239. HIV and AIDS in places of detention. A toolkit for policymakers, program managers, prison officers and health care providers in prison settings . United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS. 2008.
240. World Health O rganization. WHO Guidelines on HIV Infection and AIDS in Prisons. Geneva: WHO. 1993.
241. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Comprehensive review (Evidence for Action Technical Paper) Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
242. UNODC & WHO. Policy Brief: HIV Testing and counselling in prisons and other closed settings. Vienna & Geneva: UNODC & WHO. 2009.
243. Harding TW, Schaller G. HIV/AIDS and Prisons: Updating and Policy Review. A Survey Covering 55 Prison Systems in 31 Countries. Geneva: WHO Global Program on AIDS. 1992.
244. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Prevention of sexual transmission. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
245. World Health Organization. WHO Guidelines on HIV Infection and AIDS in Prisons. Geneva: WHO. 1993.
246. International Guidelines on HIV/AIDS and Human Rights. UNCHR Res. 1997/33, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1997/150 (1997), para. 29(e)
247. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Needle and syringe programs and decontamination strategies. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
248. Lines R, Jürgens R, Betteridge G, et al . Prison needle e xchange: A review of international evidence and experienc e. 2. Montreal: Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network. 2006.
249. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Needle and syringe programs and decontamination strategies. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
250. Menoyo C, Zulaica D, P arras F. Needle exchange in prisons in Spain. Canadian HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Review. 2000;14(4):20–21; Stöver H. Evaluation of needle exchange pilot project shows positive results. Canadian HIV/AIDS Policy & Law Newsletter . 2000;14(2/3):60–64pp.
251. Hoover J, Jürgens R. Harm Reduction in Prison: The Moldova Model. New York: Open Society Institute. 2009.
252. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Needle and syringe programs and decontamination strategies. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
253. Normand J, Vlahov D, Moses LE. Preventing HIV transmission: the role of sterile needles and bleach. Washington DC: National Academy Press. 1995. IJHML (2018) 6-50 © Law Journals 2018. All Rights Reserved Page 50
254. Harding TW, Schaller G. HIV/AIDS and prisons: updating and policy review . A Survey Covering 55 Prison Systems in 31 Countries. Geneva: WHO Global Program on AIDS. 1992.
255. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Needle and syringe programs and decontamination strategies. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
256. WHO. Effectiveness of Sterile Needle and Syringe Programming in Reducing HIV/AIDS among Injecting Drug Users. Geneva: WHO. 2004.
257. Kapadia F, Vlahov D, Des Jarlais Don C et al.Does bleach disinfection of syringes protect against hepatitis C infection among young adult injection drug users? Epidemiology.2002;14(6):738–741pp. doi: 10.1097/00001648-200211000-00023.
258. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to address HIV in prisons: Needle and syringe programs and decontamination strategies. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007.
259. European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe. Annual Report 2009. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Community. 2009.
260. Jürgens R, Cook C, Line s R. In: The global state of harm reduction 2010. Cook C, editor. London: International Harm Reduction Association. 2010. Out of sight, out of mind? Harm reduction in prisons and other places of detention.
261. WHO/UNODC/UNAIDS. Interventions to Address H IV in Prisons: Drug Dependence Treatments. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2007. Cite this Article M.Abdul Hannan, Kamrul Faisal. Human Rights of HIV/AIDS Patients with Special Reference to the Prisoners in Bangladesh . Law. April 2018; 1(2): 6–50p
